Current Issues in Visual Arts Education Essay Example for Free

Current Issues in Visual Arts Education Essay Reading has always been a part of my life. So do playing. Play in the sense of enjoying our life. What I hate most is formality, a life exist without freedom. Then I combined these two interests into one, to study about something fun, and can benefit others too. The study of literature has consumed most of my waking moments. Of course, I have done other things, but the more I have explored the more connections I see between the written page and the world in which I live in. How I realize I am the same with others, too. I think I am master enough naming and knowing the Malay traditional games that exist till now, but I am wrong. The daily games like ram-ram rip, rangkai-rangkai periuk, da da ko, cak lerang benang emas, tebang-tebang tebuk, ting-ting gula batu is already alien to me while I am searching the literature. However, the more I learn, the more I realize what I do not know. Actually, my thesis writing was under supervision of one kind-hearted professor of my school, which was under Research Methodology subject that I took last semester. She really influenced me in guiding the do and don’t in thesis writing. Her positive comments often play in my minds and always keep me awake. It is such a reflection to me. Although reflections are difficult to look into because we see what was lacking and what was missing, but I always feel relieved and more focused after seeking her advises. On the other hand, nothing could be more valuable. I have constructed this paper to reflect a dynamic process in writing my thesis. That is when I write a paper, it is not necessary I should be sitting in front of my computer, but rather I have to jot down what are appears in my mind on a piece of paper, otherwise it should left undone anywhere it could be. Hence, looking back at saved articles and references has often inspired me to expand upon an idea in completing the thesis writing. Thus, I have included list of articles for references, followed by the more polished works that have grown out them, with minimal faultlessly. I hope so. Statement of Research Problem and Research Objectives The reason why I as a researcher, trying to dig the problem of Malay traditional games because I realize that these games has been disappearing in our Malaysian community. As we know, Malaysian’s strong sense of community is reflected in many of their traditional games and pastimes. With the multicultural Malaysia, the traditional games especially among the Malays developed over a period of many centuries in the wake of important cultural influences. Some of the oldest surviving Malay traditional games like the real congkak and wau bulan still exist, but it is hardly to find one while newly developed games consoles explore brand new gaming style nowadays. Consciously or not, by the 80th era the existence of Malay traditional games is already faded out . For some concerns, traditional game augmentation aims at adding new value and playful features to a traditional game with keeping its original looks-and feel (Yamabe, Iwata, Shichinohe, and Nakajima) is the best way to keep the originality from disappear especially from the eyes of the new generation. I still remember my lists of childhood’s games. But have we ever thought that our children ever experience sitting in a circle on a wooden hut near paddy field to play batu seremban? Do they manage to collect every players shoe to build a cone-like shoe pyramid while playing tuju kasut? Or hiding under a huge tree near the bushes and get bitten by army of ants while playing aci sembunyi or hide and seek? Children are missing out of the benefits of traditional games that their parents and grandparents played in their childhood (Casbergue and Kieff ). More children are engaged in solitary games such as computer games, portable play station and other high-tech portable devices such as iPad. With the changes of time, many of the traditional games cherished by generations have their own history. Sometimes we are not even care where does it come from, including me. If I am not the researcher of this study, I think I don’t even bother about the history of congkak. The game of congkak, for example, is a mancala game of Malay origin where the oldest mancala game boards were found in a ruined fort of Roman Egypt and date back to the 4th century AD. There are frequent references to the game of marbles in Roman literature; precursors to modern-day marbles, spheres or flint, stone or baked clay have been found in archaeological sites around the world. Another popular traditional games, playing kites or ‘wau’ is believed to have been derived from the Arabic letter ‘wau’, because the shape of the wings resemble the outline of that particular Arabic letter. Of course as we played the traditional games, we were totally unaware of their long traditions. Especially for young children, they were simply having fun the same with generations before us without noticing the important part of inner value; preserving the games for the future. Traditional games are very significant in Malay cultural heritage. When we talk about something traditionally, at the same time it will reflect the culture. They reflect the ingenuity and resourcefulness of Malay forefathers in creating their own games by using inexpensive materials for their pastimes and recreations. These indigenous games are fun, and developing strong social skills among children. Lack of exposures from early ages of the children will affects the identity and originality of the traditional games. Nevertheless, future generation have no chances to explore the games if most of these traditional games faded out. According to (Akbari, Abdoli and Shafizadeh, pg. 123-129), traditional games have humanity and cultural values, beliefs translate by these from one lineage to other. These games were forgotten as a result of industrialization in recent years. As the thesis writing is upon completion of masters degree in education field, I tried to look at the issue from the angle of Malaysian education system. The implementation of traditional games into the syllabus is still lacking except for the Physical and Health Education subject specifically in primary schools. Furthermore, only a small part being inserted into the Preschool Curriculum under the thematic subject, Tunjang Kesihatan dan Kecergasan. These games, although simple, have cultural and social value and encourage children to exercise their ingenuity, especially in fostering team spirit in school and in the neighborhood. Three years back, I was a preschool teacher in my school. While doing this thesis, it jogs my memory when teaching the kids. Seriously, they were very excited at that time when I asked them to play galah panjang and baling getah. And as usual, they were asking me to play the same games the next day. Another interesting experience to share was during teacher’s day celebration in 2012. Both teachers and students were requested to compete in galah panjang games at that day. The best part was female need to wear kain batik while the male will wear kain pelekat. Everyone was having so much fun. Thus, I came out with the idea in order to preserving the true identity of Malay traditional games towards the students. I hereby conducted a case study research to implement the effects of applying Malay traditional games in the classroom for a group selection of primary school students. The application of these games wills actually results into the cognitive skills and the learning styles of students, also in teaching and learning environment in the classroom. As a result, I make the case that educational games can impact in the developing world. Significance and Limitation of the Study I am not suggesting that these games should replace existing explicit teaching strategies or supplant instructional time. My concerns are to improvise the teaching and learning style in our education by applying a new fun and interesting method while learning. The children are most likely to have peer interactions without teachers input by learning about the culture of childhood from their peers, not their parents or teachers. According to (Casbergue and Kieff), making traditional games available in the classroom could give children the opportunity to develop intellectual and physical skills within a supportive environment. An important void in the existing research literature would also be filled. This fact alone makes this research very significant. In addition, we have to remember that social skills are culturally based. Therefore, it is important for teachers to understand and be sensitive to the culturally based behaviors of students and use a variety of activities to foster acceptance of individual differences. They also can show students how to play ethnic games and encourage students to play in groups (Church, Gottschalk and Leddy). The study will then shows the importance of preserving the original identity of Malay traditional games from faded out. One of the goals of this both quantitative and qualitative research is to study the process of playing Malay traditional games and number of repetition within a certain period. I know that is important to note that the name and process may vary from one practices to another, as many version of games rules and how-to-play version, which could not be controlled by me. Sometimes, it may create confusedness among players. Brief Review on Malay Traditional Games People may see that traditional game is a simple thing, but actually traditional games are valuable elements of a culture. Their inventions show how creative the humans are, a combination with high imagination. It is such a precious heritage to be preserved and imply with the history of its creation. Furthermore, it is hard to find the true inventors of the games and how it is evolved. I have never thought who are the one created konda-kondi, tuju kasut and dam aji. This kind of heritage is a basis where a human group funds its identity, its projects for the future, its memory, its history, its fears, its desires. When people lose this untouchable, fragile fragment of their culture, then they will lose their reason for living, their past and their future (Civallero). Traditional games are a sort of intangible cultural heritage with its richness of Malay cultural values and ethics. Normally, the original version of traditional games had been manipulated by the oral from one to another. This effects the exaggeration of the true identity of traditional games itself. Traditional Malay games usually require craft skills and manual dexterity and can be traced their origins since the days of Melaka Sultanate. Sepak raga and kite flying are among traditional games that were mentioned in the Malay Annals being played by nobilities and royalties of the Malay Sultanate (Ooi). I think we should discuss on few numbers of existing Malay traditional games surround us. Firstly is ‘Dam Impit’. The purpose of this game is for players to test their expertise and brains to collect as many as opponent’s dam and getting close to opponent side of the dam’s table. Playing Dam Impit helps the player to sharpen their thinking skills, capable to develop their patience and discipline among the players (Nasarah and Nasarah). Children can play this game on free time. Adults also make this game as their spare time hobby. Secondly is Cuit Bintik. It is a very fun game to play. In certain places they call this game as Orang Ganjil Kena Cuit. The rules of the game is whoever had been touched by others at certain part of the body need to become the ‘toucher’ while holding their particular part of body and chasing for the next victim (Nasarah and Nasarah). According to (Nasarah and Nasarah ), Jarum Mas is one type of recreational game, not in a form of competition. Players can enjoy the game with one of the main character in the game as the ghost or ‘hantu’. The role of ‘hantu’ is to look after the treasures in the drawn circle. Player who had been caught by ‘hantu’ will become the next ‘hantu’ and the game will be repeated over again. For me, this one is a very interesting game to play. The game represents the culture of sending kuih to neighbors that has always been a practice to Malay people since a very long time ago. Traditionally, the kuih was made by the mother or the family members during Ramadhan or fasting month for break fast. In the research by (Nasarah and Nasarah), there is a game called ‘hantar kuih’ , often play by the boys at night of the fasting month. The game is plays for the whole month, consisting two groups A and B. The group will send the kuih secretly with name taken and wrote in a piece of paper. Whoever had been caught by the opponent will lose. By the end of the month, all players will forgive one another during Hari Raya. This kind of game test the level of children’s speed from chasing by other players and how to avoid themselves from been caught by enemies. (Nasarah Nasarah) said players who had been touched by the chaser need to sit squat until just one player left. The sitting playing is considered as died, and the only one player left will be the winner. The Malays also have a variant of Mancala board games known as Congkak Lubang Sepuluh or Congkak Lubang Dua Puluh. The game is played by moving stones, marbles, beads or shells around a wooden board consisting of twelve or more holes. At my time, my friends and me often play using marbles. Traditionally, (Nasarah Nasarah) said the real ambience to play congkak is on the ground with players wearing sarungs. The function of wearing sarungs are much easier for the players to collect marbles to put in Rumah Ibu. Rumah Ibu is the two big holes dig on the ground with optional numbers of Lubang Rumah Anak. I ever had this kind of experiences during my childhood. The ambience playing under our wooden house was really incredible and amazing. At this time, I don’t know that congkak has a different name too. Historically, mancala or congkak is acknowledged as the oldest game in the world, with variety versions of playing rules depending on the culture of the player. Its origin is traced from Ancient Egypt. As the game dispersed around the globe, every culture has invented its own variation including the Malays. It is common to assume that digital games are something of a new phenomenon. In fact, historians on digs and discover of ancient records all over the world have been able to blow this assumption right out of the water. Many of the forms of traditional games that we see today have been around the centuries, even as earlier since ancient Egypt. Time passes as well as the traditional ways of gaming for the children. As they keep themselves entertained, the generation of video consoles and touch screen are now at the forefront (Boyajian). Nowadays, highly advanced gadgets packed the markets and as time goes by, they are becoming more and more advanced. If once upon a time, the traditional games still can easily be seen played by village boys and girls, in rural or sub urban area. Rarely now, the situation are not the same when the village boys and girls are exposed to technology, to suit with the changes of era. So, where are the traditional games for the Malays? I often asking myself about this, and sometimes I asked my circle of friends, family whereby why it is hard to find one now? Are they also aware of it? Are they realizing the disappearance of our one of the most valuable cultural values too? Just like ‘the evolution’ of society was imagined as a one-way transformation from tradition to modernity (Eichberg). Yes, we can’t deny modernization, but must the tradition being abandoned? Perhaps, not. Research Methodology and Analysis My real concern about the study is actually to investigate the Malay traditional games practices in classroom. The research methodology chosen for this study contain a number of selected gaming activities in classroom, loosely based on the research written by four researchers from different universities under the same disciplines. (1)Matthew Kam (Human-Computer interaction Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, USA, (2) Akhil Mathur and (3) Anuj Kumar both from Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information and Communication Technology, Gujarat, India, and (4) John Canny (Computer Science Division and Berkeley Institute of Design, University of California, Berkeley, USA. The title of the study is ‘Designing Digital Games for Rural Children: A Study of Traditional Village Games in India. This is the best article I’ve found to assist me in writing this study, as it’s quite hard to find related scholarly articles or journals about the study. Again, I am not to design a game, but I am investigating the appropriateness either the implementation of Malay traditional games in classroom is suitable to be applied during teaching and learning or not, in any subjects not specifically in Visual Art Education subject. Conducting the study means that I am finding the best methods and relevant ideas for teachers to apply it in classrooms. Mixed method of quantitative and qualitative case study approach is used for the investigation. The intention of this study is to exemplary the research methodology adopted for the study, which is a case study design. According to Merriam states that case study is â€Å"often the best methodology when understanding is sought in order to improve practice† (as cited in Zeyad ). Case study investigations â€Å"can explain the reason for a problem, the background of a situation, what happened and why†. A case study designed is employed to gain an in-depth understanding of the situation and meaning for those involved. The interest is in discovery rather than confirmation (as cited in Zeyad ). At the first place, I thought descriptive design is the best and safer way for doing research, but after gone through few steps ahead my research, I found that case study is the best to carry mine. Besides exemplary the case research done by (Kam et. al ), I also had conducted a preliminary investigation called pilot study as well as the literature survey. The pilot study is pointed to the process of inducting theory using case studies- from specifying the research questions to reaching closure. Besides carried out as a trial study, this pilot study also assisted me in testing the feasibility, reliability and validity of the design. I then selected a number of samples to carry out the pre-test, or in easier words to play the Malay traditional games inside a classroom before the actual investigation is done. I then used the information gathered in pilot studies to refine or improve my research or evaluation procedure being piloted before it is used on a larger scale. This internal pilot study was established through a variety of ways (1) I had approached school directly via headmaster or teachers or management itself to seek permission on conducting the small scale research internally, (2)I had work ‘in partnership’ with the students and interested teachers in contributing to the research, and (3)I drew on personal and professional contacts to set up projects with colleagues who are already aware of game-based learning specifically in traditional and digital ways. Clearly, implementing a game in a teaching and learning session is risky. Either the learning objectives can be achieved or it can be left undone. To design a game that combining a traditional game and completely match the understanding of students while playing, good data collection methods will be more culturally meaningful to rural students. Although I am not designing the game, but at least I am already have in my mind that traditional games might not be playing in traditional ways only, but we can suit with the current modernization. It just how creative the teachers’ are, to add up some spice in their teaching methods. I conducted an initial focus group interview for the student during the pilot study. I asked the participants to recall the everyday games that they love to play for us to videotape. I got a tremendous response from the participants saying their favorite everyday games, including both traditional and digital games. From the feedback, I hypothesized that they still know the Malay traditional games is still exist. I then conducted four methods of data collections which are (1) combination of semi-structured and unstructured interviews, (2) participant observation, (3) follow-up questionnaires and (4) collection of documents with the participants. All gathered information will be recorded for transcribing in data analysis. By using the different methods of data collections, a cross check data will assist in interpretation of data gathered later. Generally for semi-structured and unstructured interview, close-ended and open-ended questions will be asked in order to allow the participants to create options for responding on the current research topic. Participants can also voice their experiences and perspectives on the research area without boundary. They are free to talk and voice out their opinion in order to make the session is more fun, interactive and meaningful. The participant observation will allow me to role as the participant observer during the activities being held. But the observational roles can be changed later to suit with the activities conducted. Additional data came from the participant’s responses to follow-up questionnaires developed specifically to obtain answers to new questions raised after the initial interview data had been analyzed. These follow-up questionnaires were also used to clarify initial answers and verify interview findings. Public and private records will be a good source of text data in assisting the study. Permission was obtained before using the documents.

How Miller Presents Joe Keller as a Tragic Hero in All My Sons Essay

How Miller Presents Joe Keller as a Tragic Hero in All My Sons Joe Keller is a man who loves and values his family very much. Like most Americans he has given everything so he can have the big house, the fancy car and the bulging wallet. He has given everything so he can have the American Dream. Unfortunately for Keller, everything isn't as perfect as it seems. "All My Sons" is a very tragic play. It shows how a man can sacrifice everything including the honour of his name to make his family prosperous. This struggle for wealth and material goods involves Keller doing an awful crime because he wants his family to be wealthy. This is the cause of Keller's downfall. In "All My Sons" Miller examines the morality of a man who places his narrow responsibility to his immediate family above his wider responsibility to the men who rely on the integrity of his work. "All My Sons" shows Keller placing his family in front of society. At the end of "All My Sons" Keller disappears offstage and shoots himself. This is a very tragic thing to happen because all Keller wanted was a happy family. When Chris finds out that Keller, his father, had allowed faulty cylinder heads to be sent out of his factory, Keller proves to the audience that he wanted good to come from it by saying "what the hell did I work for? That's only for you, Chris, the whole shootin' match is for you" on page 102 and "For you, a business for you!" on page 158. This tells the audience that Keller was a very hard worker and that all the hard work he did was for his family. After hearing this Keller doesn't sound like a murderer or a killer at all. He sounds like a very loving and devoted father and husband who may have done something wrong but ... ...admires him for being able to wriggle his way out of a prison sentence. They admire him for how clever he was to lie and pin the blame on someone else. I think this is a very corrupt society and I think that is what Miller was trying to portray to the audience in "All My Sons". Miller wanted to get across to the audiences his views on American society. I think Miller writes about another broader tragedy in the play besides Keller's tragedy. This tragedy is the society we live in today and how nobody looks out for each other. It is all about the survival of the fittest nowadays. This is what Chris tries to stand up against throughout the play. Keller's tragedy in "All My Sons" is that he works so hard for the American Dream and at the end of the play he shoots himself. By doing this he is giving up everything he has worked so hard for over his life.

China and Japan’s Responses to Western Influence Essay

During the 19th and 20th centuries, much of the western world had at the very least, begun to modernize. Countries on this side of the globe were becoming booming metropolises. Trade with many other nations brought lots of new things to these western countries and also resulted in the Europeans observing a good deal of places that were not yet modernized. These observations later lead to the western nations wanting to make changes. They began trying to do this by setting up spheres of influence, sending missionaries, proposing treaties and other agreements, and in some cases, completely taking over. Some countries fought back, and resisted modernization, and others submitted to the inevitable changes that were coming their way. China and Japan are great examples of this, both countries were strongly opposed to Western influence but in the end, the two countries reacted to the changes very differently. Prior to western contact, China and Japan held the belief that they were superior civilizations. Both countries felt that any contact with westerners would corrupt their perfect societies. Also, because they felt they already were perfect, they didn’t think modernization was necessary. The people of both countries were comfortable with their traditional, more old fashioned ways of life and saw no reason to change. The westerners however, would not take no for an answer, they were determined to make China open ports to them so they could trade and work to modernize the country. The westerners were very interested in obtaining silk and tea from China but the problem was, the westerners didn’t have anything the Chinese wanted in exchange besides gold and silver. This resulted in an unfavorable balance of trade. To fix this, the westerners really needed something the Chinese wanted so they began growing opium in India and illegally smuggling it into China. The habit of opium smoking caught on quickly and as a result, the western people were making a great deal of money. Overtime, more than 12 million people developed addictions to the drug. Seeing how this substance was harming China’s people, the government made opium illegal and wanted it out of their country for good. The  westerners opposed this decision and not long after, took China to war and conquered them. Following the war, the Treaty of Nanjiing was signed and the Chinese were forced to open up more ports and allow westerners into their country. This eventually lead to the modernization of China. Next on the western nations’ list was Japan. It all started with commodore Matthew Perry, he sailed to Japan and requested that the Japanese aid people of the US and Europe if they came to the shores of the country. Only a year after Perry first made his request to the Japanese, the Great White Fleet made a voyage back to Japan to reiterate the request. The Japanese, unlike the Chinese did not fight back, but agreed and the Treaty of Kanagawa was signed which opened ports for trade and ensured fair treatment and extraterritoriality for sailors. Now that Japan had opened up its shores to the westerners, the next thing they wanted to do was get Japan to modernize. Again, unlike China, Japan did not put up a fight, but decided to accept the inevitable changes that were soon to come. So, the Japanese began studying and adopting the western way of life and ended up modernizing in a period of three short years. In conclusion, although in the beginning, both China and Japan were firm believers in isolationism and did not want anything to do with western countries, once faced with the issue of western contact and modernization, the two countries responded very differently. China fought back and had to overcome many hardships and fight in terrible wars that cost many people their lives which left a lasting and devastating impact on the country. Japan on the other hand, accepted the change and avoided a great deal of violence and struggle. Although China and Japan had very different responses, it is clear that western contact and modernization changed both countries forever.

A Visual Of The Mitochondrial Dna - 1484 Words

Figure 2. A visual of the mitochondrial DNA molecule shows where the DNA gets analyzed by forensic geneticists, the hypervariable regions 1 and 2. Figure 3. The results of the TaqMan system containing the DNA numbers from various analyzed sampled. Thesis Discussion DNA phenotyping serves to determine the physical attributes of a specific individual based off of genetic material that was left behind at a crime scene. By being able to determine physical traits such as hair color, eye color, height and skin pigmentation researchers can narrow in on the appearance of a person who committed a crime. This is crucial in forensic genetics who’s geneticists play a vital role in investigating crimes and in turn play a†¦show more content†¦Science is providing us the chance to change lives and save lives, outweighing the negatives that may result. Forensic DNA Phenotyping will make crime investigation increasingly more efficient due to it’s ability to determine certain attributes of the suspect. Instead of the police investigators searching for a suspect without any idea of who they should be searching for, through DNA phenotyping police can now have a narrower clue as to the appearance of the individual due to the ability to determ ine their faces morphology including hair color, eye color, skin pigmentation, gender, and height. Compared to current practice of racial profiling used by investigators following a crime, DNA phenotyping would eliminate this practice by providing and more detailed profile of who it is they should be searching for. Making forensic DNA phenotyping far more efficient and reliable then other methods. Also, the use of eye-witnesses who are not always accurate often lead to the conviction of an innocent individual. This can be prevented by forensic DNA phenotyping and eliminate the possibility of a wrong accusation by providing genetic basis for it’s claims. Though more phenotyping is in the works, currently sex, hair color, and iris color have been proven, along with being able to provide a detailed profile of an individual. Also, DNA phenotyping such as testing for a DNA match, or simply matching DNA/fingerprints to an individual should be used because the results are factShow M oreRelatedEssay on LHON: Mitochondrial Mutations and More853 Words   |  4 PagesMitochondria are small organelles found in eukaryotic cells which respire aerobically. They are responsible for generating energy from food to ‘power the cell’. They contain their own DNA, reproducing by dividing in 2. As they closely resemble bacteria, it gave the idea that they were derived from bacteria (which were engulfed by ancestors of the eukaryotes we know today). This idea has since been confirmed from further investigations, and it is now widely accepted. 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Social Institutions and the Effects on Technology Essay

Social Institutions Effect of Technology Effects of Technology on the Education System CS300 Technology in Global Society Park University October 28, 2010 Outline 1. Introduction 2. History 3. Applications a. Distance learning b. Tutorials c. Books and other Materials 4. Benefits a. Affordability b. Accessibility c. New skills learned 5. Setbacks a. Privacy Issues b. Quality of Education 6. New Behaviors a. Social Networks b. Classroom hours 7. Stages of Technology Integration a. Entry Stage b. Adaptation Stage c. Transformation Stage 8.†¦show more content†¦Students are also much more actively engaged and motivated in the classroom, due to the familiarity of what young kids due for fun which is play video games. The accessibility of learning with technology has also extended pass the confines of a classroom and made itself available to deployed members of the armed services while stationed in a war-zone. Technology has allowed us to adapt education to our lives and made limitless educational options for students’. While there are many positives to technology’s increasing role in education, there are a few things that are seen as a setbacks rather than improvements. The appropriate time for teachers to start using technology is still questioned (Cardelle-Elawar, Wetzel, 1995). While a number of students report that teachers use technology inappropriately and speed through complex material when students should be given more time or taught in a different manner. As students learn with technology teachers are still learning to teach with it. The lack of physical social interaction which is something that is naturally taught and learned in a classroom cannot be incorporated via electronic interaction. 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The Short Story Cycle Interpreter Of Maladies By Jhumpa...

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The Rise Of Communism In Russia (2269 words) Essay Example For Students

The Rise Of Communism In Russia (2269 words) Essay The Rise of Communism in Russia Unless we accept the claim that Lenins coup that gavebirth to an entirely new state, and indeed to a new era in thehistory of mankind, we must recognize in todays Soviet Unionthe old empire of the Russians the only empire that survivedinto the mid 1980s (Luttwak, 1). In their Communist Manifesto of 1848, Karl Marx andFriedrich Engels applied the term communism to a final stage ofsocialism in which all class differences would disappear andhumankind would live in harmony. Marx and Engels claimed to havediscovered a scientific approach to socialism based on the lawsof history. They declared that the course of history wasdetermined by the clash of opposing forces rooted in the economicsystem and the ownership of property. Just as the feudal systemhad given way to capitalism, so in time capitalism would give wayto socialism. The class struggle of the future would be betweenthe bourgeoisie, who were the capitalist employers, and theproletariat, who were the workers. The struggle would end,according to Marx, in the socialist revolution and theattainment of full communism (Groilers Encyclopedia). Socialism, of which Marxism-Leninism is a takeoff,originated in the West. Designed in France and Germany, it wasbrought into Russia in the middle of the nineteenth century andpromptly attracted support among the countrys educated, public-minded elite, who at that time were called intelligentsia (Pipes,21). After Revolution broke out over Europe in 1848 the modernworking class appeared on the scene as a major historical force. However, Russia remained out of the changes that Europe wasexperiencing. As a socialist movement and inclination, theRussian Social-Democratic Party continued the traditions of allthe Russian Revolutions of the past, with the goal of conqueringpolitical freedom (Daniels 7). As early as 1894, when he was twenty-four, Lenin hadbecome a revolutionary agitator and a convinced Marxist. Heexhibited his new faith and his polemical talents in a diatribeof that year against the peasant-oriented socialism of thePopulists led by N.K. Mikhiaiovsky (Wren, 3). While Marxism had been winning adherents among theRussian revolutionary intelligentsia for more than a decadepreviously, a claimed Marxist party was bit organized until1898. In that year a congress of nine men met at Minsk toproclaim the establishment of the Russian Social DemocraticWorkers Party. The Manifesto issued in the name of the congressafter the police broke it up was drawn up by the economist PeterStruve, a member of the moderate Legal Marxist group who soonafterward left the Marxist movement altogether. The manifesto isindicative of the way Marxism was applied to Russian conditions,and of the special role for the proletariat (Pipes, 11). The first true congress of the Russian Social Democraticworkers Party was the Second. It convened in Brussels in thesummer of 1903, but was forced by the interference of theBelgian authorities to move to London, where the proceedings wereconcluded. The Second Congress was the occasion for bitterwrangling among the representatives of various Russian MarxistFactions, and ended in a deep split that was mainly caused byLenin his personality, his drive for power in the movement,and his hard philosophy of the disciplined party organization. At the close of the congress Lenin commanded a temporarymajority for his faction and seized upon the label 0Bolshevik(Russian for Majority), while his opponents who inclined to thesoft or more democratic position became known as the Mensheviksor minority(Daniels, 19). Though born only in 1879, Trotsky had gained a leadingplace among the Russian Social-Democrats by the time of theSecond party Congress in 1903. He represented ultra-radicalsentiment that could not reconcile itself to Lenins stress onthe party organization. Trotsky stayed with the Menshevikfaction until he joined Lenin in 1917. From that point on, heaccommodated himself in large measure to Lenins philosophy ofparty dictatorship, but his reservations came to the surfaceagain in the years after his fall from power (Stoessinger, 13). In the months after the Second Congress of the SocialDemocratic Party Lenin lost his majority and began organizing arebellious group of Bolsheviks. This was to be in opposition ofthe new majority of the congress, the Menshiviks, led byTrotsky. Twenty-two Bolsheviks, including Lenin, met in Genevain August of 1904 to promote the idea of the highly disciplinedparty and to urge the reorganization of the whole Social-Democratic movement on Leninist lines (Stoessinger, 33). The differences between Lenin and the Bogdanov group ofrevolutionary romantics came to its peak in 1909. Lenindenounced the otzovists, also known as the recallists, whowanted to recall the Bolshevik deputies in the Duma, and theultimatists who demanded that the deputies take a more radicalstand both for their philosophical vagaries which he rejectedas idealism, and for the utopian purism of their refusal to taketactical advantage of the Duma. The real issue was Leninscontrol of the faction and the enforcement of his brand ofMarxist orthodoxy. Lenin demonstrated his grip of the Bolshevikfaction at a meeting in Paris of the editors of the Bolsheviksfactional paper, which had become the headquarters of thefaction. Bogdanov and his followers were expelled from theBolshevik faction, though they remained within the Social-Democratic fold (Wren, 95). The Civil Rights Movement Essay The Eastern Front had been relatively quiet during 1917,and shortly after the Bolshevik Revolution a temporary armisticewas agreed upon. Peace negotiations were then begun at thePolish town of Brest-Litovsk, behind the German lines. Inagreement with their earlier anti-imperialist line, the Bolsheviknegotiators, headed by Trotsky, used the talks as a discussionfor revolutionary propaganda, while most of the party expectedthe eventual return of war in the name of revolution. Leninstartled his followers in January of 1918 by explicitlydemanding that the Soviet republic meet the German conditionsand conclude a formal peace in order to win what he regarded asan indispensable breathing spell, instead of shallowly riskingthe future of the revolution (Daniels, 135). Trotsky resigned as Foreign Commissar during the Brest-Litovsk crisis, but he was immediately appointed Commissar ofMilitary Affairs and entrusted with the creation of a new RedArmy to replace the old Russian army which had dissolved duringthe revolution. Many Communists wanted to new military force tobe built up on strictly revolutionary principles, with guerrillatactics, the election of officers, and the abolition oftraditional discipline. Trotsky set himself emphatically againstthis attitude and demanded an army organized in the conventionalway and employing military specialists experienced officersfrom the old army. Hostilities between the Communists and the Whites, whowere the groups opposed to the Bolsheviks, reached a decisiveclimax in 1919.Intervention by the allied powers on the sideof the Whites almost brought them victory. Facing the mostserious White threat led by General Denikin in Southern Russia,Lenin appealed to his followers for a supreme effort, andthreatened ruthless repression of any opposition behind thelines. By early 1920 the principal White forces were defeated(Wren, 151). For three years the rivalry went on with theWhites capturing areas and killing anyone suspected of Communistpractices. Even though the Whites had more soldiers in theirarmy, they were not nearly as organized nor as efficient as theReds, and therefore were unable to rise up (Farah, 582). Police action by the Bolsheviks to combat politicalopposition commenced with the creation of the Cheka. Under thedirection of Felix Dzerzhinsky, the Cheka became the prototypeof totalitarian secret police systems, enjoying at criticaltimes the right the right of unlimited arrest and summaryexecution of suspects and hostages. The principle of suchpolice surveillance over the political leanings of the Sovietpopulation has remained in effect ever since, despite the varyingintensity of repression and the organizational changes of thepolice from Cheka to GPU (The State Political Administration)to NKVD (peoples Commissariat of Internal Affairs) to MVD(Ministry of Internal Affairs) to the now well-known KGB(Committee for State Security) (Pipes, 140). Lenin used his secret police in his plans to use terrorto achieve his goals and as a political weapon against hisenemies. Anyone opposed to the communist state was arrested. Many socialists who had backed Lenins revolution at first nowhad second thoughts. To escape punishment, they fled. By 1921Lenin had strengthened his control and the White armies andtheir allies had been defeated (Farah, 582). Communism had now been established and Russia had becomea socialist country. Russia was also given a new name: The Unionof Soviet Socialist Republics. This in theory meant that themeans of production was in the hands of the state. The state,in turn, would build the future, classless society. But still,the power was in the hands of the party (Farah, 583). The nextdecade was ruled by a collective dictatorship of the top partyleaders. At the top level individuals still spoke forthemselves, and considerable freedom for factional controversyremained despite the principles of unity laid down in 1921. Works CitedDaniels, Robert V., A Documentary History of Communism. New York: Random House Publishing, 1960. Farah, Mounir, The Human Experience. Columbus: Bell Howess Co., 1990. Luttwak, Edward N., The Grand Strategy of the Soviet Union. New York: St. Martins Press, 1983. Pipes, Richard, Survival is Not Enough. New York: SS Publishing, 1975. Stoessinger, John G., Nations in Darkness. Boston: Howard Books, 1985. Wren, Christopher S., The End of the Line. San Francisco: Blackhawk Publishing, 1988.