Social Institutions and the Effects on Technology Essay

Social Institutions Effect of Technology Effects of Technology on the Education System CS300 Technology in Global Society Park University October 28, 2010 Outline 1. Introduction 2. History 3. Applications a. Distance learning b. Tutorials c. Books and other Materials 4. Benefits a. Affordability b. Accessibility c. New skills learned 5. Setbacks a. Privacy Issues b. Quality of Education 6. New Behaviors a. Social Networks b. Classroom hours 7. Stages of Technology Integration a. Entry Stage b. Adaptation Stage c. Transformation Stage 8.†¦show more content†¦Students are also much more actively engaged and motivated in the classroom, due to the familiarity of what young kids due for fun which is play video games. The accessibility of learning with technology has also extended pass the confines of a classroom and made itself available to deployed members of the armed services while stationed in a war-zone. Technology has allowed us to adapt education to our lives and made limitless educational options for students’. While there are many positives to technology’s increasing role in education, there are a few things that are seen as a setbacks rather than improvements. The appropriate time for teachers to start using technology is still questioned (Cardelle-Elawar, Wetzel, 1995). While a number of students report that teachers use technology inappropriately and speed through complex material when students should be given more time or taught in a different manner. As students learn with technology teachers are still learning to teach with it. The lack of physical social interaction which is something that is naturally taught and learned in a classroom cannot be incorporated via electronic interaction. Some students even report that teachers are distancing themselves from students, by not being involved in teaching it but merely showing what the work should look like or how it got that way (1). Even though today’s classroom looksShow MoreRelatedImpact Of Technology On Development Of Society1723 Words   |  7 Pages1. How has technology impacted development, both negatively and positively? One of the most interesting factors of social transformations in the modern post- industrial society is the widespread influence of modern information technologies on society. There is no precise opinion about positive or negative effects of technologies on the development of society. It mostly depends on the people, who use them, and what purposes they pursue. Information technologies have radically changed the workRead MoreThe Ethics Of Academic Integrity1149 Words   |  5 Pageseducational institutions to address these ethical issues by setting policies in place to combat academic dishonesty. 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Practices that accompany these projects, postulating the existenceRead MoreImpact Of Globalisation On Higher Education1388 Words   |  6 PagesGlobalisation is the evolution of society whi ch affect human life, education is one of those, especially in postgraduate degrees which receive the most influence from globalisation. The development in technologies and communication have produced a shift in learning system which affect cultures and national economic growth. Higher education systems has been transformed by globalisation, which is â€Å"the widening, deepening and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness† (Held et al., 1999, p.14). When

The Short Story Cycle Interpreter Of Maladies By Jhumpa...

Throughout the world, various groups of people value a wide variety of different things. In the short story cycle Interpreter of Maladies, the author Jhumpa Lahiri explores the importance of food and meals in Indian culture. This is illustrated through the connections her characters form with cultures, places, or even other people as a result of food. In certain cultures, such as that of India, food is an essential element of life. This is illustrated in the story â€Å"When Mr. Pirzada Came to Dine†, in which Mr. Pirzada shares many meals with Lilia’s family. Upon meeting Mr. Pirzada, Lilia assumes he is Indian, because he â€Å"ate pickled mangoes with [his] meals,† and â€Å"ate rice every night for supper with [his] hands† (Lahiri 25), which are both†¦show more content†¦For Mrs. Sen, cooking and eating fresh fish creates an association to India, which for her, is where â€Å"everything is† (Lahiri 113). Mrs. Sen also associates cutting food with her blade to her life in India. One of the most prominent and detailed descriptions of where she is from occurs when she is discussing the blade with Eliot, of which in India, there is â€Å"at least one in every household† (Lahiri 115). Mrs. Sen fondly describes to Eliot how when she lived in India, on the occasion of a big event, th e neighbourhood women would gather, â€Å"laughing and gossiping and slicing fifty kilos of vegetables through the night† (Lahiri 115). The idea that food can create an association to a specific location is also demonstrated in â€Å"A Temporary Matter.† Shoba recounts her experience in India with power outages, and eating with the lights off, comparing it to the meals she shares with Shukumar. The thought of dining in this fashion, without the luxury of electric light reminds her of her home, where â€Å"during power failures at [her] grandmother’s house, [they] all had to say something† (Lahiri 12). This tradition from her home is what causes her to suggest that she and Shukumar do the same. The two texts emphasize that both the type of food that is eaten, as well as the way it is eaten, can work to create a connection between aShow MoreRelatedHow Does Life Affect Our Lives?2504 Words   |  11 Pagespeople to their limit allowing them to be vulnerable to a deep depression due to the amount of impact that it brings to their lives. However, everyone reacts differently to these types of situations. Not everyone falls in depression, some do but for a short period of time, and others end up seeking for help due to the major impact that this can cause in their lives. It is not easy to remain strong as a rock when the wind hits you hard as a tornado. Everyone has faced this obstacles at least once in their

The Rise Of Communism In Russia (2269 words) Essay Example For Students

The Rise Of Communism In Russia (2269 words) Essay The Rise of Communism in Russia Unless we accept the claim that Lenins coup that gavebirth to an entirely new state, and indeed to a new era in thehistory of mankind, we must recognize in todays Soviet Unionthe old empire of the Russians the only empire that survivedinto the mid 1980s (Luttwak, 1). In their Communist Manifesto of 1848, Karl Marx andFriedrich Engels applied the term communism to a final stage ofsocialism in which all class differences would disappear andhumankind would live in harmony. Marx and Engels claimed to havediscovered a scientific approach to socialism based on the lawsof history. They declared that the course of history wasdetermined by the clash of opposing forces rooted in the economicsystem and the ownership of property. Just as the feudal systemhad given way to capitalism, so in time capitalism would give wayto socialism. The class struggle of the future would be betweenthe bourgeoisie, who were the capitalist employers, and theproletariat, who were the workers. The struggle would end,according to Marx, in the socialist revolution and theattainment of full communism (Groilers Encyclopedia). Socialism, of which Marxism-Leninism is a takeoff,originated in the West. Designed in France and Germany, it wasbrought into Russia in the middle of the nineteenth century andpromptly attracted support among the countrys educated, public-minded elite, who at that time were called intelligentsia (Pipes,21). After Revolution broke out over Europe in 1848 the modernworking class appeared on the scene as a major historical force. However, Russia remained out of the changes that Europe wasexperiencing. As a socialist movement and inclination, theRussian Social-Democratic Party continued the traditions of allthe Russian Revolutions of the past, with the goal of conqueringpolitical freedom (Daniels 7). As early as 1894, when he was twenty-four, Lenin hadbecome a revolutionary agitator and a convinced Marxist. Heexhibited his new faith and his polemical talents in a diatribeof that year against the peasant-oriented socialism of thePopulists led by N.K. Mikhiaiovsky (Wren, 3). While Marxism had been winning adherents among theRussian revolutionary intelligentsia for more than a decadepreviously, a claimed Marxist party was bit organized until1898. In that year a congress of nine men met at Minsk toproclaim the establishment of the Russian Social DemocraticWorkers Party. The Manifesto issued in the name of the congressafter the police broke it up was drawn up by the economist PeterStruve, a member of the moderate Legal Marxist group who soonafterward left the Marxist movement altogether. The manifesto isindicative of the way Marxism was applied to Russian conditions,and of the special role for the proletariat (Pipes, 11). The first true congress of the Russian Social Democraticworkers Party was the Second. It convened in Brussels in thesummer of 1903, but was forced by the interference of theBelgian authorities to move to London, where the proceedings wereconcluded. The Second Congress was the occasion for bitterwrangling among the representatives of various Russian MarxistFactions, and ended in a deep split that was mainly caused byLenin his personality, his drive for power in the movement,and his hard philosophy of the disciplined party organization. At the close of the congress Lenin commanded a temporarymajority for his faction and seized upon the label 0Bolshevik(Russian for Majority), while his opponents who inclined to thesoft or more democratic position became known as the Mensheviksor minority(Daniels, 19). Though born only in 1879, Trotsky had gained a leadingplace among the Russian Social-Democrats by the time of theSecond party Congress in 1903. He represented ultra-radicalsentiment that could not reconcile itself to Lenins stress onthe party organization. Trotsky stayed with the Menshevikfaction until he joined Lenin in 1917. From that point on, heaccommodated himself in large measure to Lenins philosophy ofparty dictatorship, but his reservations came to the surfaceagain in the years after his fall from power (Stoessinger, 13). In the months after the Second Congress of the SocialDemocratic Party Lenin lost his majority and began organizing arebellious group of Bolsheviks. This was to be in opposition ofthe new majority of the congress, the Menshiviks, led byTrotsky. Twenty-two Bolsheviks, including Lenin, met in Genevain August of 1904 to promote the idea of the highly disciplinedparty and to urge the reorganization of the whole Social-Democratic movement on Leninist lines (Stoessinger, 33). The differences between Lenin and the Bogdanov group ofrevolutionary romantics came to its peak in 1909. Lenindenounced the otzovists, also known as the recallists, whowanted to recall the Bolshevik deputies in the Duma, and theultimatists who demanded that the deputies take a more radicalstand both for their philosophical vagaries which he rejectedas idealism, and for the utopian purism of their refusal to taketactical advantage of the Duma. The real issue was Leninscontrol of the faction and the enforcement of his brand ofMarxist orthodoxy. Lenin demonstrated his grip of the Bolshevikfaction at a meeting in Paris of the editors of the Bolsheviksfactional paper, which had become the headquarters of thefaction. Bogdanov and his followers were expelled from theBolshevik faction, though they remained within the Social-Democratic fold (Wren, 95). The Civil Rights Movement Essay The Eastern Front had been relatively quiet during 1917,and shortly after the Bolshevik Revolution a temporary armisticewas agreed upon. Peace negotiations were then begun at thePolish town of Brest-Litovsk, behind the German lines. Inagreement with their earlier anti-imperialist line, the Bolsheviknegotiators, headed by Trotsky, used the talks as a discussionfor revolutionary propaganda, while most of the party expectedthe eventual return of war in the name of revolution. Leninstartled his followers in January of 1918 by explicitlydemanding that the Soviet republic meet the German conditionsand conclude a formal peace in order to win what he regarded asan indispensable breathing spell, instead of shallowly riskingthe future of the revolution (Daniels, 135). Trotsky resigned as Foreign Commissar during the Brest-Litovsk crisis, but he was immediately appointed Commissar ofMilitary Affairs and entrusted with the creation of a new RedArmy to replace the old Russian army which had dissolved duringthe revolution. Many Communists wanted to new military force tobe built up on strictly revolutionary principles, with guerrillatactics, the election of officers, and the abolition oftraditional discipline. Trotsky set himself emphatically againstthis attitude and demanded an army organized in the conventionalway and employing military specialists experienced officersfrom the old army. Hostilities between the Communists and the Whites, whowere the groups opposed to the Bolsheviks, reached a decisiveclimax in 1919.Intervention by the allied powers on the sideof the Whites almost brought them victory. Facing the mostserious White threat led by General Denikin in Southern Russia,Lenin appealed to his followers for a supreme effort, andthreatened ruthless repression of any opposition behind thelines. By early 1920 the principal White forces were defeated(Wren, 151). For three years the rivalry went on with theWhites capturing areas and killing anyone suspected of Communistpractices. Even though the Whites had more soldiers in theirarmy, they were not nearly as organized nor as efficient as theReds, and therefore were unable to rise up (Farah, 582). Police action by the Bolsheviks to combat politicalopposition commenced with the creation of the Cheka. Under thedirection of Felix Dzerzhinsky, the Cheka became the prototypeof totalitarian secret police systems, enjoying at criticaltimes the right the right of unlimited arrest and summaryexecution of suspects and hostages. The principle of suchpolice surveillance over the political leanings of the Sovietpopulation has remained in effect ever since, despite the varyingintensity of repression and the organizational changes of thepolice from Cheka to GPU (The State Political Administration)to NKVD (peoples Commissariat of Internal Affairs) to MVD(Ministry of Internal Affairs) to the now well-known KGB(Committee for State Security) (Pipes, 140). Lenin used his secret police in his plans to use terrorto achieve his goals and as a political weapon against hisenemies. Anyone opposed to the communist state was arrested. Many socialists who had backed Lenins revolution at first nowhad second thoughts. To escape punishment, they fled. By 1921Lenin had strengthened his control and the White armies andtheir allies had been defeated (Farah, 582). Communism had now been established and Russia had becomea socialist country. Russia was also given a new name: The Unionof Soviet Socialist Republics. This in theory meant that themeans of production was in the hands of the state. The state,in turn, would build the future, classless society. But still,the power was in the hands of the party (Farah, 583). The nextdecade was ruled by a collective dictatorship of the top partyleaders. At the top level individuals still spoke forthemselves, and considerable freedom for factional controversyremained despite the principles of unity laid down in 1921. Works CitedDaniels, Robert V., A Documentary History of Communism. New York: Random House Publishing, 1960. Farah, Mounir, The Human Experience. Columbus: Bell Howess Co., 1990. Luttwak, Edward N., The Grand Strategy of the Soviet Union. New York: St. Martins Press, 1983. Pipes, Richard, Survival is Not Enough. New York: SS Publishing, 1975. Stoessinger, John G., Nations in Darkness. Boston: Howard Books, 1985. Wren, Christopher S., The End of the Line. San Francisco: Blackhawk Publishing, 1988.

Transactional Analysis Essay Example

Transactional Analysis Paper TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS: A REVIEW OF THEORY Running Head: TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS: A REVIEW OF THEORY Transactional Analysis: A Review of Theory Robin K. Walters-Powell Wayne State University SW 9220 Spring, 2010 Abstract Eric Berne, M. D. during the 1940’s as an alternative to psychoanalysis, created Transactional Analysis theory. Although influenced by the likes of Freud, Kahn, Federn, and Erikson, it was a transition to the optimistic side of human nature. It lends itself to the values of social work as it focuses on both the empowerment and value of human beings. This theory is evaluated through exploration of its historical origins, evolutionary development, key concepts, assumptions, usefulness and major contributions to the profession of social work. Ethical issues are discussed as well as the strengths and weaknesses of this approach. Historical origins and evolutionary development Born during the psychoanalytic movement, Transactional Analysis was the brain child of Eric Berne, M. D. He began constructing this theory in the early 1940s during his training as a Freudian psychoanalyst and psychiatrist (Corey, 2008). At that time there were many others also contributing to the field of psychoanalysis, including: Dr. Eugene Kahn, Dr. Paul Federn, Erick Erikson, and Sigmund Freud (as previously mentioned), all of which had a direct influence on Eric Berne (Turner, 1986). Transactional Analysis Theory evolved due to Berne’s dissatisfaction with the success of traditional psychoanalytical therapy, this included the slowness of psychoanalysis in helping people to solve their problems. Berne’s objections also included the fact that it was a time consuming method, very complex, and it was often poorly communicated to clients (Corey, 2008). During the 1940’s time period, social work was searching for a new focus on treating clients. The search turned inward and from this, psychodynamic theorists began to look for explanations that could assist in describing the conflict between internal and external forces. Freud had been the leading influence in this area, and from his work and experience, other theorists took liberty in creating their own way of looking at clients. We will write a custom essay sample on Transactional Analysis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Transactional Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Transactional Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer His idea about human personality being multi-faceted was particularly influential on Berne. This idea that regardless of what the particular areas of personality are labeled, each person â€Å"possesses factions that frequently collide with each other. It is these collisions and interactions between these personality factions that manifest themselves as an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. † (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). Through Freudian theory, these would be understood as the id, ego, and superego. Dr. Berne felt that Freud’s proposed structures were more â€Å"concepts and not phenomenological realities:†(Berne D. E. , 2001). Although influenced by Freud, his approach took on a different method altogether. Freud believed that the three aspects of personality (Id, Ego, and Superego) needed to be well balanced in order to achieve a good state of mental health. Berne created a theory that considered a different approach, one that was based on the original idea of Freud that personalities are multi-faceted(Berne D. E. , 2001). Berne took the alternative approach to therapy and instead of asking the client about it directly, it seemed that a problem was easier understood by observing the communication (verbal and nonverbal) in a transaction. Therefore, instead of interviewing the client directly, he took a different route and would observe the client in the group setting, noting all of the transactions that occurred between both the patient and the individuals involved in therapy. Also attractive to Berne was Federn’s work on analysis, structure, and the multiple aspects of the ego that resulted in human transactions (Turner, 1986). This also represents the split from the Freudian mainstream between the psychodynamic theorists and the ego psychologists. Probably most notable is Erik Erikson, whose life-span theory focused more on the ego as a separate structure, rather than a derivative of the id. Dr. Berne studied under Erik Erickson for two years prior to striking out on his own. Erickson’s view on the importance of developmental life stages was the springboard for Transactional Analysis, as demonstrated by the key concepts of this theory. Berne believed that the personality was structured into three different ego states: Parent, Adult, and Child. He moved from believing these were mere â€Å"theoretical concepts† to the idea that these were directly observable in his patients. Instead of making assumptions based on prior Freudian teaching, Berne would ask the question directly to the patient, asking which state was currently speaking(Prochaska, 2010). Biologically speaking, there is evidence that helped to also support the development of Transactional Analysis. Dr. Wilder Penfield, a neurosurgeon from McGill University in Montreal, Canada was experimenting with the effects of applying electrical currents to specific regions of the brain(Berne D. E. , 2001). From this he found that by stimulating certain areas, it brought forth meaningful memories, which helped to reveal a person’s past, accompanied with feelings and emotions that went with these forgotten memories. The direct influence on Berne as a result of these experiments was as follows: -the human brain acts in many ways like a camcorder, vividly recording events. While that event may not necessarily be able to be consciously retrieved by the owner, the event always exists in the brain. -both the event and the feelings experienced during that event are stored in the brain. The event and the feelings are locked together, and neither one can be recalled without the other. -when an individual replays his or her experiences, he or she can replay them in such a vivid form that the individual experiences again the same emotions he or she felt during the actual experience (Berne D. E. , 2001). Individuals are able to exist in two states simultaneously. Individuals replaying certain events are able to experience the emotions associated with those events, but they are able to objectively talk about the events (Berne D. E. , 2001). This would explain how a client could identify which â€Å"state† from where the discussion or feelings are coming from. Berne worked to assist the patient in identifying the emotions, feelings, and this became the point from which the progress in therapy could begin. It was in 1958 that Berne started the San Francisco Psychiatry Seminars, a small group of professionals that met to discuss their interest in social treatment. Turner, 1986). It was during these sessions that many different approaches to psychotherapy were discussed. The idea of these seminars took off and soon professionals interested in this type of discussion were traveling from everywhere to attend. His theory became a method of therapy, through which standards, training, and certification were developed. Key Concepts/Central Propos itions The framework of this approach is based on a transaction, which Berne considered the fundamental unit of social intercourse. He also used the terminology of â€Å"strokes†, which he defined as â€Å"units of social recognition† (Turner, 1986) He drew on the work of Rene Spitz, who looked at why infants suffered from failure to thrive. Spitz did studies on children in orphanages and the devastating effects of lack of touching and nurturing of the child. It was through these studies that Berne developed the concept of the importance of stroking, and how he felt it crucial for human survival. He expanded on this idea of the physical touch and attention to include that of verbal transactions as well. He defined a stroke as â€Å"the fundamental unit of social action† (Berne D. E. , 2001). Berne’s theory of Transactional Analysis explored this idea of stroking, based on the assumption that people spend their lives seeking strokes (Turner, 1986). These strokes can be negative, positive, conditional, and unconditional and can be given verbally, nonverbally, and physically. It is by knowing your own and your client’s â€Å"stroke economy†, it helps develop information on how you can problem-solve (Witkin, 1988) together (Turner, 1986). Berne also developed the idea of three ego states; this is in addition to the analysis of the interactions between individuals. He defined the ego state as â€Å"a consistent pattern of feeling and experience directly related to a corresponding consistent pattern of behavior (Berne D. E. , 2001). Berne noticed as he worked with his clients that they had different displays of behavior that constantly changed during his counseling sessions. He would notice that the individual had different â€Å"states of being†, which he began to refer to as the â€Å"adult, child, and parent†. Not at all imitating the id, ego, and superego; these concepts stood on their own as phenomenological realities. He was able to confirm these ego states with observable behaviors that could be measured, thus creating a justifiable place in the scientific community. Berne created unique definitions for the three ego states, Parent, Child, and Adult, all of which were the underlying fabric for his theory. He felt that child were widely influenced by their parents, thus the first few years of life were spent collecting and recording what as experienced and modeled to them. This includes the values, morals, and beliefs taught by the parents. When a patient was in this stage, they would react in a way that they feel their parents would react. Berne referred to this as a time â€Å"when children have no way of filtering the data, therefore these events are â€Å"imposed† on the child†(Berne D. E. , 2001). There are two aspects of this Parent ego state which need to be address ed, those being the Nurturing Parent (NP) and the Controlling Parent (CP), both of which have positive and negative aspects (Corey, 2008). The positive consists of nurturing the Child stage and moving from the parental influence to more of how the child actually perceives events. Exploration was done in the area of feelings and emotions that were experienced during this stage. The final ego state in this theory is Adult, this is the time when a child starts to experience some independence (thus, the start of the Adult in the small child). This is exhibited by gross motor activity within the child. Different than what the child observed (Parent) and felt (Child), the Adult provides the platform for evaluating and validating the Child and Parental data. A simplification of Transactional Analysis would be to describe the Parent as the taught concept, the Child as the felt concept, and the Adult as the learned concept(Berne D. E. , 2001). Yet another important concept in Transactional Analysis is what Berne considered Time Structuring(The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). Looking at how humans use their time can indicate whether or not they are socially healthy. With each distinction of time usage (withdrawal, ritual, pastimes, activities, games, and intimacy) there are both social advantages and disadvantages. It is through this analysis that one can be determined to be in â€Å"control† of their time spent. This theory encourages time spent for creative, spontaneous work and play, which is indicative of a healthy person. In his book, The Games People Play, Berne states that the â€Å"eternal problem of the human being is how to structure his waking hours† (pg. 5). Time-structuring is also known as â€Å"programming† and consists of three aspects: material, social, and individual. The material programming provides opportunities for â€Å"stroking† that arise through activities where social exchange must occur in order to progress to the intended goal. These activities offer a matrix for â€Å"stroking†, recognition, and other more complex forms of social intercourse(Berne E. , 1964). The social aspect of â€Å"programming† is the criteria provided by both the parents and the culture in which a child is raised. These are the cues to what types of behavior are acceptable, which are reinforced through structure and reinforcements. This guidance is provided for the individual through unspoken rules and regulations, however, eventually the individual programming will take over. Individual programming takes over and the person may choose to act against the norm- this is known as â€Å"the game†(Berne E. , 1964). This individual programming attempts to explain abnormal, dysfunctional behavior, which Berne describes as â€Å"games†(The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). As related to the concept of needing strokes, whether positive or negative, dysfunctional behavior is a result of attempting to get these strokes. Often times, this need for strokes tends to reinforce negative feelings and self-concepts, which in turn, tends to help hide the real thoughts and emotions of people. Thus, the negative behavior of the individual continues. Berne described this cycle as a result of â€Å"self-limiting behaviors†- these are actions that were learned during childhood that were used as a means of survival. This is what is known in Transactional Analysis as the â€Å"life script†, or the pre-conscious life plan that governs the way life is lived out (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). The purpose behind Transactional Analysis is changing this â€Å"life script† through a mutual contracting for change. It acknowledges that clients have the ability to decide what they need for their lives and work in a positive manner to make the changes needed to move towards reaching these goals. Assumptions Transactional analysis is based on the assumption that individuals have the ability to become aware of decisions that govern behavior. These individuals are assumed to have the capacity to make new decisions that will alter the life course in a beneficial manner(Corey, 2008). Another core assumption of this theory is that a life position is chosen early in life, based on early experiences. Children make a precocious decision about how they are in life compared to others around them. This â€Å"life position† has four possibilities: â€Å"I’m OK- you’re OK, I’m OK- you’re not OK, I’m not OK- you’re OK, or I’m not OK- you’re not OK† (Prochaska, 2010). Berne believed that generally, all children are born with the notion that they are â€Å"OK†, it is the programming that occurs that may change how the child views themselves and the world around them. This theory also assumed that people experiencing social or emotional difficulty are intelligent and capable of understanding their stress. People are responsible for their own healing process. He also felt that all social and emotional difficulties are curable, given adequate knowledge and a proper approach. Berne demonstrated through Transactional Analysis theory the belief that anything that has learned can be relearned(Corey, 2008). There are some instances where we have not discovered how to approach specific populations of people that are diagnosed with things such as schizophrenics, alcoholism, etc. Berne felt that these populations of people were â€Å"good† and capable of leading satisfying lives that do not interfere with others. Using the foundation of theory evaluation criteria provided by Witkin and Gottschalk(1988), the first condition is that the theory should be explicitly critical; including an examination of its historical, political, and cultural implications. This theory is substantive in that it collects content based on the three ego states(Berne D. E. , 2001). Through this procedure, it provides a methodology of steps needed in therapy, information that is important to obtain, and ways to evaluate and analyze information collected. It takes into account the aspects of social constructivism, which is an attempt to develop a meaningful science of human behavior(Witkin, 1988). Social contructionism, as defined by Witkin and Gottschalk(1988), consists of assumptions based on common understandings of the world as a function of cultural and historical contexts. This understanding occurs through a process of social interaction and the understanding is based on social processes- these descriptions and explanations of social phenomena constrain certain patterns and reinforce others(Witkin, 1988). Transactional Analysis theory parallels social contructionism through the life scripting that occurs early in childhood, based on the transactions and reinforcements that occur through programming, particularly the social aspect. By utilizing the client as the resource for gaining the information, whether it is through observing interactions both verbal and nonverbal, it will provide a better comprehension of the meaning behind the client’s communication. Witkin and Gottshcalk(1988) also consider the idea the theory should recognize that humans are active agents, meaning people act according to their intentions nd can surmount obstacles and transform them. Based on this concept, Transactional Analysis fits this criteria perfectly. It is a theory based on the idea that it is essential for people to be involved in their own treatment process. Berne had an implicit viewpoint that humans understand their stress more than any other and they also realize that the change process is v ital to their happiness. Witkin and Gottschalk(1988) also evaluate theory on the aspect that it should account for the life experiences of the client. By looking at the three ego states of Transactional Analysis; the Child, the Parent, and the Adult, it takes into consideration the specific influences, both internal and external that each person has experienced in their life. This is the basis for the predicated movement towards change for the client. The social justice aspect would be present in allowing the opportunity for each individual to feel their experiences were valid, and beneficial to the therapeutic process (Witkin, 1988). Viewing this theory through another analytic framework provided by Fischer(1973), there are five areas of theories that may be considered for analysis to determine effectiveness. The structural characteristics of Transactional Analysis are proscriptive in nature, meaning there is an explanation and tools to use in therapy. Unlike Freudian concepts that are descriptive, Berne was able to create measurable terminology that was used to determine findings in a consistent manner. The measure of an effective theory, according to Fischer(1973), is that the theory is testable. Through Transactional Analysis theory, there are clearly defined terms, such as strokes (both positive and negative), ego states, and transactions. Berne gave solid, measurable definitions of these terms and provided the ability to test this theory in a scientific, measurable manner(Berne D. E. , 2001). By following the process of script analysis, Transactional Analysis provides the individual with the awareness of how they acquired their life script and allows them to see more clearly their life role. This realization assists the individual in opening up possibilities for making changes and contracting provides the roadmap. Fisher (1973) also provides criteria that the theory should be comprehensive in nature, which Transactional Analysis seems to comply. It allows the client to explore both learning externally (the Parent) and internally (the Child), with the client analyzing these interactions through an exploration of how one affects the other (the Adult). This would appear to be a useful theory, as it is provides techniques for therapeutic intervention. Transactional Analysis is able to explain normal behavior, although it is not clear on abnormal behavior such as schizophrenia or criminal behavior. It does not account for those clients that do not have a positive viewpoint or willingness to change their â€Å"life script†. When utilizing Fischer’s method of analyzing theory, one must consider the assumptions made about human nature. This theory views people in a very optimistic, positive manner. It promotes creativity, relaxation, and the ability to recognize what changes need to be made(Berne D. E. , 2001). It emphasizes a positive worker/client relationship that promotes good rapport, trust, and the willingness to create a plan for change(Clary, 1980). It appears to be in line with the core values of social work, including self-determination and respect for client rights, individualism, and dignity(NASW, 2008). This is demonstrated by allowing the client to recognize instances of how the â€Å"life script† developed and thus clients are increasing empowered to choose their ego state at any particular time(Prochaska, 2010). Transactional analysis provides the opportunity for the therapist to relate as an equal to the client. The clients are able to progress in therapy at their own pace, further demonstrating the value of self-determination. This theory encourages the volitional powers of patient right from the onset of treatment by making it a contractual arrangement(Prochaska, 2010). According to the analytical framework provided by Fischer, this would appear to be a very useful, valid theory for use in practice (Fischer, 1973). Using the theory in the social work profession Transactional Analysis still is utilized today in the field of social work. In fact, there still exists training and certification in this very area of specialization. Berne was interested in more than just the client progressing slowly, he wanted to provide a method of coping that would assist individuals on an immediate, daily basis. In general, social workers also strive for immediate relief for clients, groups, and communities. It is important to establish an immediate rapport with clients in order to make progress towards meeting goals. Transactional analysis describes this very concept through â€Å"stroking â€Å", which requires a social worker to understand both their need and ability to provide this type of reinforcement (Berne D. E. , 2001). In practice social workers must be able to model positive stroke giving as an important part of effective practice. In theory, the process of learning to give and receive strokes will help alleviate feelings of depression and loneliness and increase personal intimate relationships. Using the three identified ego states allows for the therapist to make assessments regarding the client in the areas of thinking, feeling, and learning. Berne provides four ways to identify or diagnose ego states; behavioral, social phenomenological, and historical(Berne D. E. , 2001). Behavioral diagnosis would consist of gesture, voice, and vocabulary that are typical in each ego state. A social diagnosis would consist of how people react to the client; a phenomenological diagnosis is experiencing in the present old feelings from the past, and a and historical diagnosis would be looking at the past reflected in the present. All of these consist of the process of deciding how one wants to be socially with others, social work theory and practice support methods to gain autonomy (Turner, 1986). Providing an atmosphere for change is another way in which this theory is used in social work practice. The Child ego state wants comfort and warmth, time for exploration and activity. This is provided for the client using this theory by giving them a comfortable atmosphere in which to do therapy. This helps to develop a caring position for developing the rapport needed for the client to be able to problem solve and work towards changing their behavior. To be effective, transactional analysts must be genuine in therapy, they must believe in relating as equals with clients(Prochaska, 2010). Another form of social treatment using the Transactional Analysis method for social workers is the initial use of positive stroking. In this field the recognition of asking for help is a sign that the client is trying to cope and it is an indicator of client autonomy. Therefore, it is essential in the initial stages that the practice of positive stroking occurs, this builds rapport and provides and effective, therapeutic environment(Napper, 2009). The social worker also is able to provide a provision of protection for the client, in both an individual and group therapy situation(Corey, 2008). A client is encouraged to participate in self-analysis, this type of therapy provides them with a safe, nurturing environment in which to do so. Group therapy is preferred in Transactional Analysis, in part because it allows a greater number of transactions, including more troubled transactions, than might ordinarily occur with an individual therapist relating primarily as an Adult(Prochaska, 2010). Regardless of the venue, providing clear rules about the session and what to expect will allow the client to feel safe to reveal themselves, thus allowing the opportunity for a trusting relationship with those involved in the therapeutic process. Patients are not the only potential game players in transactional analysis. Therapists using this method must be ever vigilant in enacting their own scripts at their clients’ expense(Prochaska, 2010). Self-awareness of the social work practitioner assists in eliminating this phenomena It would also be essential that the therapist seek strokes away outside of the workplace so as not to utilize the client in this manner. This is beneficial not only to the client/therapist relationship but to the basic premise behind the theory of Transactional Analysis. Major Contributions One of the major criticisms of the science or lack thereof behind psychotherapy is based on the fact that there is often no unit of measurement for study. Berne was able to create a measurable concept by defining the transaction of stroking, thus providing a measure that was able to give some credibility to this theory in the world of science. In the book Games People Play (1964 ), Berne defined transactions as a unit of social intercourse: â€Å"If two or more people encounter each other†¦sooner or later one of them will speak, or give some other indication of acknowledging the presence of the others. This is called transactional stimulus. Another person will then say or do something, which is in some way related to the stimulus, and that is called transactional response. â€Å"(Berne, 1964) Transactional Analysis is a versatile theory that can be used in group, couples, family, and individual therapy (Corey, 2008). This theory focuses on establishing intimacy and joy in interaction and communication, which is effective in creating positive outcomes for group and family members. By acknowledging ego states and the programming that has occurred, this can assist clients in becoming more self-aware and confident in their communication and interactions. It is through this realization that self-actualization can occur, thus providing a platform for success in changing behavior (Sills, 2007). Transactional analysis makes extensive use of the interpersonal interactions between therapist and client within sessions (Prochaska, 2010). This theory is still utilized currently still in therapy, there is a certification one can obtain in this theory that consists of training in the areas of psychotherapy, educational, organizational, and counseling arenas (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). This movement continues today and has a worldwide list of members that both practice and belong to the International Transactional Analysis Association, thus supporting the idea that this is an effective theory that can be used in current practice. Ethical Issues/Consistency with social work values and ethics/Diverse Populations Transactional Analysis provides the foundation for self-determination (NASW, 2008). It recognizes client autonomy and the importance of allowing the client to guide their own decision making process (Corey, 2008). It embraces the ethics of preserving the value of human beings, equality (social justice), and self-responsibility(NASW, 2008). By observing the client’s interactions and behaviors (verbal and nonverbal), this honors the client as the expert and would require the therapist to have competence when working with various cultures. This would encourage and promote education on the differences of social constructionism when working with clients of diverse populations. The user-friendly nature of Transactional Analysis transcends cultural barriers, along with the educational approach to personal development (Corey, 2008). The idea of â€Å"life scripts† encompassed in this theory help to break through assumptions when it comes to our clients, whether it is with personality, culture, or other dramatic scripts that may include drug addiction or mental illness. These types of scripts, particularly those of cultural can affect whole populations in a harmful way. This violates our ethical principles of self-determination and by working through these situations using Transactional Analysis, it would serve to enhance the core values of social work. This type of theory is useful in working with women due to the use of contracts, equal relationships between client and practitioner, and empowerment of individuals (Corey, 2008). The feminist perspective is also celebrated by allowing the client to become empowered, and giving the opportunity to challenge the therapist’s ideas, allowing them to compare their reality with that of other women (Corey, 2008). Requisite skills for the practitioner Transactional Analysis would require a practitioner to have excellent observation skills and special training. The Berne Institute offers this training to those wishing to excel in the area of psychotherapy using the Transactional Analysis Techniques (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). Practitioners would need to be familiar with the strengths perspective and have the ability to identify their own ego states. It would require maturity and the ability to recognize how their own external and internal experiences have affected them. By recognizing this it will allow the practitioner to remove biases and act in a professional manner when helping clients. The practitioner would need to be able to engage clients in a positive style and create rapport through the stroking method as proscribed through this theory (Berne D. E. , 2001). Strengths/Weaknesses of the theory Noted strengths of this theory are that it is positively focused and client centered. The client leads the sessions, and the identification of the ego states allows insight into the coping power of clients (Berne D. E. , 2001). Transactional analysis is a contractual and decisional model for change on the part of the client. It connects that mind and body, moving the transactional analysts to take a more holistic approach. These contracts may lead to new behaviors and give the client a sense of control. Therapy interventions are more likely to succeed and produce enduring change when involving the emotional and behavioral approaches (Corey, 2008). This theory would appear to be flexible and its concepts easily applied to individual, couples, families, groups, and community interventions. Also noted by Corey (2008) is that the concepts in this theory are congruent with a gender-sensitive approach to group work. Many clients are often unaware of how gender plays a role in their lives, this theory applied is helpful in realizing the role of importance it has and the effect is has on the client. It is often used in evaluating organizations, thus proving that it is a versatile theory with the ability to go from the micro to the macro in application (Clary, 1980). The emerging conclusions are that Transactional Analysis with adults has been proven more effective than no treatment, it roduces outcomes at best comparable to other forms of insight-oriented psychotherapy (Prochaska, 2010). Some notable limitations to the approach are that it has not been adequately subjected to empirical validation (Corey, 2008). Some of Berne’s concepts were stated in a manner that it would be impossible to design a research study to test them. Although there are measurable items in place (i. e. contract builds and supports accountability), the main determinate of success is based on feeling and observations (Corey, 2008). There is also the danger of losing the client to the jargon or structure of the theory- this structure can be used to avoid person-to-person interactions and focus on labeling ego states. Clients may be replacing old processes with new terms, and in doing so, preventing themselves from reaching self-actualization (Corey, 2008). Other Limitations with regards to Transactional Analysis are not openly apparent, with perhaps the exception of the cognitive aspects of reviewing the ego states (Berne D. E. , 2001). If a client is not mentally capable of identifying situations of learning and past experiences, or if they are limited in their capabilities for emotion, this may inhibit the effectiveness of this theory. Perhaps there may be a flaw in thinking that we can experience the past as it actually occurred, when in fact we are in the present. There needs to be some consideration as to how the present influences our thinking and assumptions. Based on where we are today, our morals, values, and experiences, it would be difficult not to be biased in some way when discussing our Child/Parent experiences and filtering it through the Adult ego state. 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